/ məˈriːn baɪˈɒl.ə.dʒi / study / RE: CLIMATE, CONSERVATION, ENVIRONMENT, OCEANS, POLICY, SCIENCE Marine biology is the study of life in the ocean, including everything from tiny plankton and colourful coral reefs to whales, sharks, seaweed, and deep-sea creatures. Marine biologists research how these species live, grow, reproduce, and interact with their ocean habitats. They also study how marine ecosystems are affected by human actions like pollution, overfishing, and climate change. For example, researchers may track how warming seas bleach coral reefs, how oil spills affect marine life, or how fishing nets harm turtles and dolphins. Marine biology plays a vital role in shaping conservation policies and international agreements. Scientists provide the evidence needed for decisions about marine protected areas, sustainable fishing laws, and climate action at both national and global levels. Their work supports organisations like the UN, EU, and national governments working to protect ocean biodiversity and keep marine environments healthy for future generations. | Back to the Encyclopedia

/ ˈlaɪ.bəl / terminology / RE: ETHICS, JOURNALISM, LAW, MEDIA Libel is the act of publishing false and damaging statements about a person that harm their reputation. Unlike slander, which involves spoken words, libel refers specifically to written or published content - such as in newspapers, online articles, or social media posts. In journalism, libel is a serious legal and ethical issue. Reporters and media outlets must ensure that their information is accurate and fair, especially when reporting on individuals or organisations. If someone can prove that false information was shared publicly and caused them harm, they may take legal action for defamation. Balancing libel laws with press freedom is important. While the media has the right to report on matters of public interest, it also has a responsibility not to publish harmful falsehoods. | Back to the Encyclopedia

/ kiˈəʊtəʊ ˈprəʊ.tə.kɒl / treaty / RE: CLIMATE, DIPLOMACY, ENVIRONMENT, POLICY The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty adopted in 1997 under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). It set legally binding targets for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions, recognising their historical responsibility for the climate crisis. The agreement marked one of the first major efforts to hold countries accountable for contributing to global warming through industrial activity. The treaty officially came into force in 2005 and introduced carbon reduction mechanisms like emissions trading and carbon offsetting. Although it was later replaced by the Paris Agreement in 2015, the Kyoto Protocol laid the groundwork for global cooperation on climate change and helped frame how we think about environmental responsibility, especially in relation to industrialised nations. | Back to the Encyclopedia

/ ˈkæt.ɑːr / country / RE: ENERGY, GEOPOLITICS, GULF, MIDDLE EAST Qatar is a small country on the Arabian Peninsula, bordered by Saudi Arabia and surrounded by the Persian Gulf. Despite its size, Qatar plays an outsized role in regional and global affairs due to its vast natural gas reserves, making it one of the wealthiest countries per capita in the world. Before oil and gas, Qatar’s economy was built on pearling, which thrived until the early 20th century and shaped its coastal culture and trade. Today, its wealth comes largely from liquefied natural gas (LNG) exports. Qatar also holds international influence through its media network Al Jazeera, global investments, and diplomatic initiatives. It is known for hosting major events, including the 2022 FIFA World Cup, but has also faced scrutiny over labour rights, especially concerning migrant workers. Qatar remains a key player in energy markets, regional diplomacy, and global soft power. | Back to the Encyclopedia

/ ˈkɪm.bə.li ˈprəʊ.ses / certification / RE: AFRICA, CONFLICT, ETHICS, REGULATION, TRADE The Kimberley Process is an international certification scheme launched in 2003 to stop the trade in conflict diamonds - rough diamonds used to fund armed conflict and rebel movements, particularly in parts of Africa. The process was created after global pressure mounted over the link between the diamond trade and violent wars, most notably in Sierra Leone, Angola, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Countries that join the Kimberley Process must follow strict rules for tracking and certifying diamonds to ensure they are conflict-free. Shipments can only be traded between participating countries and must be sealed and accompanied by an official certificate. The aim is to make the diamond industry more transparent and ethical, while protecting communities affected by conflict. Although the Kimberley Process has helped raise awareness and reduce the flow of conflict diamonds, it has also faced criticism for weak enforcement, limited scope, and loopholes that allow unethical practices to continue. Still, it remains a key example of how international cooperation and trade policy can be used to address conflict and promote responsible sourcing. | Back to the Encyclopedia

/ ˈkeɪnziən;ˌiː.kəˈnɒ.mɪks / theory / RE: DEVELOPMENT, ECONOMICS, GOVERNMENT, POLICY Keynesian economics is an economic theory developed by British economist John Maynard Keynes. It says that governments should step in to help the economy when things slow down - especially during a recession. According to this theory, when people and businesses stop spending, the government can boost the economy by spending more itself or cutting taxes, helping to create jobs and keep things moving. In international development, Keynesian ideas are often used to support public investment in things like roads, schools, and healthcare - especially in poorer or recovering economies. The theory continues to shape how many countries think about economic growth, inequality, and the role of government in supporting people’s wellbeing. | Back to the Encyclopedia

/ dʒuːˈdɪʃ.ər.i / institution / RE: DEMOCRACY, GOVERNANCE, JUSTICE, LAW, RIGHTS The judiciary is the branch of government responsible for interpreting and applying the law. It includes judges, courts, and tribunals that handle everything from minor disputes to constitutional questions. The judiciary plays a key role in making sure laws are followed, rights are protected, and public officials are held accountable. In democratic systems, the judiciary is meant to be independent from political influence so that decisions are fair, impartial, and based on the law. It helps settle disagreements, protect minorities, and ensure that no one is above the law. The strength and independence of a country’s judiciary often reflect the health of its democracy and the protection of human rights. | Back to the Encyclopedia

/ ˈtær.ɪf / terminology / RE: BUSINESS, ECONOMY, GOODS, INTERNATIONAL TRADE, POLICY A tariff is a tax placed on goods that come into a country from abroad. When a government adds a tariff, it increases the cost of imported products, which can make locally made goods more competitive in price. Tariffs are commonly used to protect local jobs, businesses, and industries, especially in agriculture, steel, and manufacturing. Tariffs also play a role in global politics. One major example was the U.S.–China trade war that began in 2018, when former President Donald Trump introduced tariffs on hundreds of billions of dollars’ worth of Chinese goods. The U.S. said these tariffs were a response to unfair trade practices and intellectual property theft by China. In return, China imposed its own tariffs on American products like soybeans and cars. This back-and-forth raised tensions between the two countries and increased costs for businesses and consumers around the world. While tariffs can help local industries in the short term, they can also lead to higher prices, supply chain disruptions, and trade conflicts. Many countries now aim to reduce tariffs through trade agreements, such as those within the World Trade Organization (WTO) or regional trade blocs like the EU or USMCA. | Back to the Encyclopedia

/ ˈhjuː.mən ˈtræf.ɪ.kɪŋ / terminology / RE: CRIME, EXPLOITATION, HUMAN RIGHTS, VIOLENCE Human trafficking is the illegal movement or control of people through force, deception, or abuse of power, usually for the purpose of exploitation. This can include forced labour, sexual exploitation, domestic servitude, or forced marriage. Trafficked people are often tricked with false promises of jobs, education, or safety, then trapped in situations where they cannot leave. It happens in almost every part of the world and affects people of all ages and backgrounds, though women, children, and migrants are especially vulnerable. Trafficking is often run by organised criminal networks and can involve crossing international borders or take place entirely within one country. Combating human trafficking requires strong laws, support for survivors, and international cooperation. It is widely recognised as a serious violation of human rights and a global issue that calls for urgent action and awareness. | Back to the Encyclopedia

/ ˌhaɪ kəˈmɪʃ.ən / location / RE: COMMONWEALTH, DIPLOMACY, EMBASSY, INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS A high commission is a diplomatic mission between two Commonwealth countries. It works in a similar way to an embassy, providing services like visas, passports, and support for citizens living or travelling abroad. The main difference is the name and the history it reflects—high commissions exist specifically between countries that are members of the Commonwealth of Nations. The Commonwealth is a voluntary group of 50+ countries, most of which were formerly part of the British Empire. It promotes cooperation on issues like development, education, climate change, and democracy, with shared values such as human rights and equality. Countries like India, South Africa, Canada, Nigeria, Australia, and Jamaica are all members. The head of a high commission is called a high commissioner, not an ambassador. While the day-to-day functions are much like those of an embassy, the use of the term reflects historical ties and ongoing collaboration between Commonwealth countries. | Back to the Encyclopedia

/ ˈɡriːn.haʊs ɡæs / terminology / RE: CLIMATE, EMISSIONS, ENVIRONMENT, GLOBAL WARMING, POLLUTION A greenhouse gas is a gas in the atmosphere that traps heat, making the Earth warmer. These gases are a major cause of climate change because they stop heat from escaping into space, similar to how the glass of a greenhouse holds in warmth. The most common greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O). They come from everyday human activities. For example, petrol and diesel cars release CO₂ from burning fuel. The more cars on the road, the more emissions are added to the atmosphere. In farming, cows and sheep produce methane as part of their digestion, and large-scale livestock farming adds significantly to global methane levels. Greenhouse gases also come from energy use in homes, deforestation, and some industrial processes. Reducing these emissions is key to slowing global warming, which is why they are a major focus of climate agreements like the Paris Agreement. | Back to the Encyclopedia

/ ˌɡreɪt ˈbrɪ.tən / country / RE: COLONIALISM, COMMONWEALTH, EUROPE, GEOGRAPHY, GEOPOLITICS, UNITED KINGDOM Great Britain is the largest island in the British Isles, made up of England, Scotland, and Wales. It does not include Northern Ireland, which is part of the United Kingdom (UK) but lies on the neighbouring island of Ireland. Historically, Great Britain was at the centre of the British Empire, one of the largest empires in history. Through colonialism and imperialism, it controlled vast parts of Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, and the Pacific, shaping global trade, language, politics, and migration, often through exploitation, violence, and cultural domination. The legacies of British colonial rule continue to influence many former colonies today, especially in areas like legal systems, education, and economic inequality. In the modern world, the UK—of which Great Britain forms the largest part—remains a powerful global actor. It is a key member of international groups like the G7, which includes the world’s largest advanced economies, and the G20, a forum for major global powers to coordinate economic and financial policy. Britain also holds a permanent seat on the UN Security Council, and plays an active role in NATO, the Commonwealth, and climate diplomacy. | Back to the Encyclopedia

/ ˈɡʌv.ən.mənt / institution / RE: DEMOCRACY, INSTITUTIONS, LAW, POLITICS, POWER A government is the system in charge of running a country, region, or local area. It makes decisions that affect everyday life – from setting school curriculums and building roads to deciding taxes and making laws. Governments are responsible for keeping order, protecting rights, and providing services like healthcare, education, and public transport. Most governments are made up of three main parts, called branches, each with its own job: The executive branch carries out the laws and manages day-to-day operations. This includes the prime minister, president, or cabinet ministers. The legislative branch makes the laws. This usually means parliament or congress, where elected representatives debate and vote on policies. The judicial branch interprets the law and makes sure it is applied fairly. This includes courts and judges, who can settle disputes or check if laws break a constitution. Governments can look very different around the world – some are elected in free and fair elections, while others are controlled by a small group or a single leader. The way a government works affects how power is shared, how decisions are made, and how much say people have in shaping their future. | Back to the Encyclopedia

/ ˌdʒiː.əʊˈpɒl.ə.tɪks / terminology / RE: BORDERS, GOVERNMENT, INFLUENCE, POWER Geopolitics is about how countries interact with each other based on where they are in the world and what they have—like land, resources, or access to the sea. It looks at how geography influences political decisions, conflicts, and alliances. For example, a country with lots of oil, or one that sits between two powerful nations, might play a bigger role in global politics because of its location. Geopolitics helps explain why some countries go to war, why others form trade deals or military partnerships, and how power shifts over time. It’s a way of understanding the real-world interests behind headlines—whether it’s tension over borders, struggles for control over energy, or why certain places become global flashpoints. | Back to the Encyclopedia

/ frɑːns / country / RE: DEMOCRACY, EUROPE, GEOPOLITICS, POLITICS France is a country in Western Europe, bordered by Germany, Italy, Spain, and Belgium, with coastlines on the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. Its capital, Paris, is a global centre for politics, culture, fashion, and finance, and home to many international organisations and diplomatic missions. France is a founding member of the European Union, a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, and a nuclear power—giving it significant influence in global diplomacy, defence, and international law. It plays a leading role in shaping European policy, promoting multilateralism, and participating in peacekeeping missions and global development efforts. As a former colonial power, France maintains strong ties with many African nations and continues to be active in Francophone diplomacy. It is also a leader in climate negotiations, having hosted the pivotal Paris Agreement in 2015. France’s cultural, economic, and political reach make it one of the world’s most influential states. Domestically, it is a semi-presidential republic known for its strong civil society, vibrant intellectual tradition, and history of revolution and social movements. It remains central to global conversations around secularism, migration, and national identity. | Back to the Encyclopedia

/ ˈfed.ər.əl ˈtʃæn.səl.ər.i / institution / RE: DEMOCRACY, EXECUTIVE POWER, GERMANY, GOVERNANCE, POLITICS The Federal Chancellery in Berlin is the main office of the Chancellor of Germany, the country’s head of government. It supports the Chancellor in leading the government, shaping national policy, and coordinating the work of different ministries. The Chancellery works closely with the Bundestag, Germany’s parliament, which meets in the nearby Reichstag building. The two buildings sit directly across from each other, symbolising the balance of power between the executive (the Chancellor and government) and the legislative (parliament). While the Reichstag is where laws are debated and passed, the Chancellery is where those laws are turned into action. The Chancellery plays a key role in managing Germany’s response to major issues—like climate change, economic strategy, and international relations. Its position beside the Reichstag reflects Germany’s commitment to transparency and cooperation in democratic governance. | Back to the Encyclopedia

/ ˈfæm.ɪn / terminology / RE: CRISIS, FOOD SECURITY, POVERTY Famine is an extreme and widespread shortage of food that leads to severe hunger, malnutrition, and often death. It usually affects large populations and is caused by a mix of factors such as drought, war, economic collapse, or poor government response. Famines are not just natural disasters, they are often made worse by political decisions, inequality, and lack of access to resources. Famine can destroy communities, disrupt education and livelihoods, and have long-term effects on health and development, especially for children. International aid, early warning systems, and coordinated political action are key to preventing and responding to famines. Ending famine is not only about food - it’s about justice, access, and protecting the most vulnerable. | Back to the Encyclopedia

/ ˌeks.əˈfɪʃ.i.əʊ / office / RE: AUTHORITY, GOVERNANCE, LEADERSHIP, SENIOR Ex officio is a Latin phrase that means “by virtue of one’s position or office.” It’s used to describe someone who is automatically given a role or responsibility because of another job they already hold. For example, a university dean might be an ex officio member of an academic committee—not because they were elected or chosen separately, but simply because their main role includes that responsibility. This term is often used in formal settings such as government, law, or organisations. For instance, a government regulator might sit ex officio on an industry consultation committee, offering insight and oversight due to their official position. The person isn’t joining the group as a separate appointment, they’re there because the role they already hold gives them that seat. Ex officio can be used as both an adjective (“She is an ex officio board member”) and an adverb (“He attends the meetings ex officio”) . It’s a small phrase that signals something important: that certain powers or responsibilities come automatically with a position of authority. | Back to the Encyclopedia

/ el ka.piˈto.ljo / institution / RE: CUBA, GOVERNANCE, HISTORY, LATIN AMERICA, PARLIAMENT, POLITICS El Capitolio is a major political and historical building in Havana, Cuba. It was completed in 1929 and originally served as the seat of the Cuban Congress before the 1959 Cuban Revolution. Today, it houses the National Assembly of People’s Power, the main lawmaking body in Cuba’s political system. The building is famous for its grand design—featuring a massive dome, stone columns, and long staircases—and was modelled after the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C., but with local Cuban touches. It was once the tallest structure in Havana and remains a powerful symbol of the country's political heritage. After years of disuse and careful restoration, El Capitolio has reopened to the public and to lawmakers. It is a working seat of government and also a tourist destination, reflecting both Cuba’s colonial past and socialist present. | Back to the Encyclopedia

/ ˈkɒn.sjʊ.lət / location / RE: ADMINISTRATION, DIPLOMACY, EMBASSY, INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS A consulate is the office of a country’s government located in a foreign city, usually separate from its main embassy. While an embassy is typically based in a country’s capital and handles high-level diplomatic work, a consulate focuses more on everyday services and citizen support. Consulates help their citizens with things like issuing passports, replacing lost documents, legal assistance, and helping during emergencies. They also issue visas for foreign nationals who want to travel, work, or study in the country they represent. For example, the Spanish consulate in New York might help Spanish citizens living in the U.S. and process visa applications for Americans visiting Spain. Larger countries often have several consulates in different cities around the world to stay connected with their citizens and support international mobility. | Back to the Encyclopedia